Newsgroups: sci.crypt,comp.security.misc,alt.security Subject: APPLIED CRYPTOGRAPHY - Electronic Version of Index Message-ID: From: schneier@chinet.chinet.com (Bruce Schneier) Date: Thu, 18 Nov 1993 05:58:37 GMT Organization: Chinet - Public Access UNIX Lines: 1747 Attached is the index to my book, Applied Cryptography. Please feel free to distribute it at will in electronic form. Permission is not given to print the index out; for that you have to buy the book. I would appreciate it if this index were placed on various crypto ftp sites around the world. Bruce ****************************************************************************** APPLIED CRYPTOGRAPHY INDEX copyright 1994 by John Wiley & Sons. Permission is granted only to copy and distribute this index electronically. Abreast Davies-Meyer hash function, 343 Accreditation, single, 292 Active attacks, 25 Active cheaters, 25 Adaptive-chosen-plaintext attack, 5 ADFGVX cipher, 10 Adjudicator, 23, 24 Adleman, Leonard, 12, 282 Advanced threshold schemes, 385, 86 Adversaries, 4 Agnew, G. B., 370 Algebraic coding theory, 316 Algorithms and ciphers, 2, 3 breakable, 7 choosing, 183, 85, 272, 320 complexity of, 194, 95 for export, 184, 85, 448, 54 introduction, 2, 3 multiple and multiple encryption, 168 public, 183, 84 restricted, 2 secure, 7 security of symmetric cryptosystem and, 129, 30 strong, 7 types of, mathematically defined, 194 unconditionally secure, 7 All or nothing disclosure of secrets (ANDOS) introduction, 83, 84 multiple parties buying from single seller, 399, 401 voting with single central facility, 109 Alternating stop-and-go generator, 360, 61 American Bankers Association, 221 American National Standards Institute (ANSI). See ANSI. Anderson, Ross, 360 Anonymous key distribution, 80, 81 Anonymous messages broadcasting, 124, 26 Dining Cryptographers problem, 124 multiparty unconditionally secure protocols, 126 Anonymous money orders, 117, 19 ANSI standards, DES, 221, 22 ANSI X9.17 key generation, 145 Arbitrated protocols, 21, 23 solutions, 62, 63 timestamping services, 62 Arbitrators computer, 23 difference between adjudicators and, 24 group signatures with trusted, 70, 71 role of, 21, 23 signing documents with symmetric cryptosystems and, 31, 33 simultaneous contract signing with, 99 simultaneous contract signing without, (face-to-face), 99, 100 simultaneous contract signing without, (not face-to-face), 100, 1 simultaneous contract signing without, (using cryptography),101, 3 Ascom-Tech AG, 266 Asmuth-Bloom, 385 Athena project, 417, 425 AT&T, 370 Attacks. See also Authentication; Cryptanalysis active, 25 against DES, 234, 238, 39 against poker protocols, 80 against proof-of-identity protocols, 49 against protocols, 24, 25 against public-key cryptography, 30, 31, 274 attackers, 4 birthday attack, 295, 322 block replay, 155, 57 brute-force, 130, 35 chosen-ciphertext attack, 274, 75, 286, 87 common modulus attack against RSA, 287 Den Boer and Bosselaer's attacks, 329, 333, 336, 337 dictionary, 142, 44 dictionary, and salt, 47, 48 digital signatures and encryption, 38 foiling resend, 39 insertion attack, stream ciphers, 174 introduction, 4 low exponent attack against RSA, 287, 88 man-in-the-middle attack, 43, 44, 50 meet-in-the-middle attack, 166 passive, 25 reduced keyspaces and, 141, 42 software-only brute-force, 135, 36 time and cost estimates for brute-force attack, 130, 35, 195 types of, 5, 6 viruses, 137 Authentication dictionary attacks and salt, 47, 48 Feige-Fiat-Shamir algorithm, 291, 96 introduction, 47 key exchange and, 51, 56 mutual, using interlock protocol, 49, 51 Schnorr algorithm, 303 SKID, 51 user identification with public-key cryptography, 48, 49 Authenticators, 419 Avalanche effect, 227, 245 Backup keys, 149 Banks and digital cash, 117, 24 Bardell, Paul, 363 Battisa, Leon, 10 Beaufort cipher, 10 Bellcore, 306 Bell Laboratories, 237 Bell-Northern Research, 415 Bellovin, Steve, 50, 378, 380, 424 Bennett, Charles, 408, 410 Ben-Or, Michael, 100 Berkovitz, Shimshon, 382 Berson, Tom, 333 Beth-Piper stop-and-go generators, 359, 60 Beth, Thomas, 301 Biases and correlations, generated sequences, 371, 72 Biham, E., 234, 237, 238, 240, 244, 247, 249, 252, 253, 259, 260, 264, 268, 272, 324, 326, 329 Bilateral stop-and-go generator, 361 Biotechnology and brute-force attacks, 138, 39 Birthday attacks, 322, 23 Fiat-Shamir signature scheme, 294, 96 Bishop, Matthew, 429 Bit commitment, 71, 74 blobs, 74 using one-way functions, 73 using pseudo-random sequence generators, 73, 74 using symmetric cryptography, 72 Blakley, G. R., 60, 384 Blind signatures algorithm, 403, 4 completely, 94, 95 cut-and-choose technique, 95, 96 envelopes, 96 introduction, 93, 94 voting with, 106, 7 Blobs, bit commitment, 74 Block algorithms. See Algorithms, block Block chaining (BC) mode, 163 Block cipher MAC, 345 Block cipher modes block chaining (BC) mode, 163 block replay, 155, 57 choosing, 164, 65 cipher block chaining (CBC) mode, 157, 60, 231 cipher block chaining of plaintext difference (CBCPD), 164 cipher feedback (CFB) mode, 160, 61, 231 counter mode, 163 Electronic Codebook mode (ECB), 154, 55, 231 error propagation, 159, 60, 161, 162 framing, 160 Initialization vector, 48, 158, 161, 162 output feedback (OFB) mode, 162, 231 output feedback with a non-linear function (OFBNLF), 164 padding, 158, 59 plaintext block chaining (PCB) mode, 164 plaintext feedback (PFB) mode, 164 propagating cipher block chaining (PCBC) mode, 163, 64 self-recovering errors, 160 Block ciphers CA-1.1, 268, 69 DES as, 224 DES, overview and outline, 224 FEAL-N, 249, 52 IDEA, 260, 266, 436 introduction, 3 Khufu and Khafre, 257, 59 LOKI, 255, 57 Lucifer, 220, 236, 244, 45 Madryga, 245, 47 MMB, 266, 68 NewDES, 247, 49 RC2 and RC4, 259, 60 REDOC, 252, 55 Skipjack, 269, 70, 437 stereotyped beginnings and endings, 155 using as stream ciphers, 175, 76 vs. stream ciphers, 176, 77 Blocks introduction, 3 length, doubling via multiple encryption, 167, 69 replay, 155, 57 size for computer analysis, 3 Bloom, J., 385 Blum integers, 208, 397, 98 Blum, Manuel, 75, 87, 91, 407 Blum-Mitcali generator, 365 BlumBlumShub (BBS) generator, 365, 66, 407 Boolean circuit, 117 Bosselaers, A., 329, 333 Boyar, Joan, 349 Boyd, Colin, 56 Branstead, Dennis, 223 Brassard, Giles, 74, 408, 410 Breakable algorithms and work factor, 7 Brickell, Ernie, 304, 315 British Telecom, 410 Broadcast interactive proofs, 91 Broadcasting keys and messages, 46, 47, 57 anonymous messages, 124, 26 secrets, 381, 83 Brute-force attack, 130, 35, 195 biotechnology, 138, 39 Chinese Lottery, 137 software crackers, 135, 36 software only, 135, 36 time and cost estimates for brute-force attacks, 130, 35, 195 viruses, 137 Burmester, Mike, 91 CA-1.1, 268, 69 Cade algorithm, 318 Cash, Digital. See Digital Cash CCITT X.508 public-key protocol, 153 CD-ROM applications, 15 Cellular automata (CA), 268, 317, 337 Cellular automaton generator, 363 Central Legitimization Agency (CLA), 107 Central Tabulating Facility (CTF), 105 Certificates, 153, 426, 430 Certification Authorities (CAs), 426, 430 Certifying authority (CA), 153, 426 Chaining variables, 330 Chaining, 157, 60 Chambers, W. G., 362 Chaum, David, 68, 70, 114, 392, 393, 403, 404 Cheaters passive and active, 25 secret sharing with, 60, 386, 87 Cheating secure elections, 113, 14 with digital cash, 117, 24 with digital signatures, 36, 37 Chess grandmaster problem, 91, 93 Chinese Lottery, 137, 38 Chinese remainder theorem, 204, 5 Chips and random noise, 370 Clipper and Capstone, 181, 269, 436, 437, 38 DES chip, 231 RSA, 281, 288 Chor-Rivest knapsack, 280, 81 Chosen-ciphertext attack, 5, 6, 274, 75, 286, 87 Chosen-plaintext attack, 5, 274 Cipher block chaining (CBC) mode, 157, 60 DES, 231 error propagation, 159, 60 initialization vector, 158 padding, 158, 59 Cipher block chaining of plaintext difference (CBCPD), 164 Cipher feedback (CFB) mode, 160, 61 DES, 231 error propagation, 161 self-synchronous stream ciphers, 174, 75 Cipherpunks, 445 Ciphers and algorithms, 2, 3 blocks. See Block ciphers historic term, 8 stream. See Stream ciphers substitution, 8, 10, 193 transposition, 10 Ciphertext, 1, 2 Ciphertext pairs, 238 Ciphertext-only attack, 5 Civil War, American, 10 Cleartext, 1-2 Clock pulse, 351 Clocks, computer for real random sequence generators, 369, 70 Codes. See also Cryptanalysis historic term, 8 PURPLE, Japanese diplomatic, 6 q-code cryptosystems, 8 Coefficients, solving for, 203 Coin flipping Dining Cryptographers problem, 124, 26 fair coin flips, 74, 78, 395, 98 into well, 77 key generation using, 78 using Blum integers, 397, 98 using exponentiation modulo p, 396, 97 using one-way functions, 75, 76 using public-key cryptography, 76, 77 using square roots, 396 Commercial COMSEC Endorsement Program (CCEP), 223 Common modulus attack on RSA, 287 Communications ANSI standards, 221, 22 protocols, purpose of, 20, 21 using public-key cryptography, 29, 31 using symmetric cryptography, 26, 27 Communications networks, encrypting, 178, 80 end-to-end encryption, 179, 80 link-by-link encryption, 178, 79, 180 traffic-flow security, 178 Company, example, 21 Complement keys, 234 Complexity classes of problems, 196, 97 Complexity theory, 193, 98 algorithms, 194, 95, 319 computational complexity, 193 NP, complete problems, 197, 98, 277 problems, 195, 97 stream ciphers, 365, 66 Compression permutation, 227 Compromised keys, 150 Computational complexity, 193 Computer analysis adjudicated protocols, 24 arbitrators, 23 block size for, 3 processors for brute-force attack, 131, 34 pseudo-random sequence generation, 15, 39, 41 software-only brute force attacks, 135, 36 XOR algorithm, 12, 13 Computer communications. See Communications Computer Professionals for Social Responsibility (CPSR), 438,446, 47 Computer Security Act of 1987, 221, 304, 441 Computing with encrypted data, 71, 395 Computationally secure algorithm, 7 COMSET (COMmunications SETup), 377, 78 Confirmation messages, 37, 38 Confusion, 193 Connell, Charles, 249 Continued Fraction Algorithm, 211 Contract signing. See Signing contracts, simultaneously Contraction functions, 28 Convertible undeniable signatures, 393, 95 Cook, S. A., 197 Coppersmith, Don, 80, 240, 341 Cost estimates for brute-force attack, 130, 35, 195 Counter mode, 163, 172, 173 Crime and digital cash, 123 crypt(1), 364 CRYPT(3), 242 Crypt Breakers Workbench (CBW), 364 Cryptanalysis differential, 237, 238, 40 introduction, 1, 4, 7 linear, 241 of FEAL, 251, 52 of IDEA, 264 of LOKI, 255, 56 of Madryga, 247 of N-Hash, 326, 28 of NewDES, 248, 49 related-key, 240, 41 Snefru one-way hash function, 324, 25 Cryptanalysts, 1 Cryptech, Inc., 255 CRYPTO conference, 91 Cryptographers, 1 Cryptographic facility, 414 Cryptographic protection of databases, 61 Cryptographic protocols, 20 Cryptographically secure pseudo-random sequence generators (CSPRSGs), 356 Cryptography definition, 1 hybrid systems, 177 implementations. See Example implementations large numbers used in, 15, 16 quantum, 408, 10 relativized, 192 simultaneous contract signing without arbitrator, 101, 3 Cryptologists, 1 Cryptology, 1 Cryptosystems introduction, 4 security, 7, 191 Cubic algorithms, 194 Cusick, Thomas, 253 Cut and choose technique, 85, 86 blind signatures and, 95, 96 Damgard, Ivan, 337 Damm, Arvid Gerhard, 11 Data authentication code (DAC), 28 Data Encryption Standard (DES) adoption of, 221, 22 algorithm, overview and outline, 224 alternate S-boxes, 242 attacks against, 234, 238, 39 avalanche criteria, 227 complement keys, 234 compression permutation, 227 CRYPT(3), 242 decrypting, 230 development of, 219, 21 differential cryptanalysis, 237, 238, 40 E-boxes, 227 encryption speed, 231 expansion permutation, 227, 28 final permutation, 230 FIPS PUBs, 221 generalized (GDES), 243 hardware and software implementations of, 231 in 1987, 222, 23 in 1992, 223, 24 initial permutation, 26 key length, 236, 37 key transformation, 226, 27 linear cryptanalysis, 241 modes of, 231 multiple, 241 non-group benefits, 234, 45 P-box permutation, 230 permuted choice, 227 related-key cryptanalysis, 240, 41 rounds, 224, 237 S-boxes, 228, 29, 237, 38 security, 232 speed, compared to RSA, 286 straight permutation, 230 validation and certification of DES equipment, 222 weak keys, 232, 34 with independent subkeys, 241 Data Encryption Algorithm (DEA). See Data Encryption Standard Data Encryption Standard (DES), 221 brute-force attack, 130, 35, 195 introduction, 12 substitution boxes, 228 Data Exchange Key (DEK), 433 Data computing with encrypted, 395 for storage, encrypting, 180, 81 Data integrity check (DIC), 28 Databases cryptographic protection, 61 public-key, 43 secret keys, 30, 33 Davies, D. W., 414 Davies-Meyer hash function, 338, 39, 340, 41 Deciphering, 8 Declaration of Independence and NewDES, 248 Decoding, 8 Decryption decrypting with public-key, 35 DES, 230 introduction, 1, 2 knapsack algorithm, 279, 80 public-key, 29 Decryption algorithm, 2, 3 Decryption keys, 4 Defense Messaging System (DMS), 269, 313 DeLaurentis, John, 315 Den Boer, Bert, 326, 329, 333 Den Boer and Bosselaer's attacks, 329, 333, 336, 337 Denning, Dorothy, 11 DES standard. See Data Encryption Standard (DES) Desmedt, Yvo, 69, 91, 386 Destroying keys, 152 Dictionary attacks, 142, 44 and salt, 47, 48 Differential cryptanalysis, 237, 238, 40 Diffie, Whitfield, 29, 33, 131, 177, 212, 235, 273 Diffie-Hellman algorithm, 275, 77 encrypted key exchange (EKE), 379, 80 extended, 275, 76 fair cryptosystems, 386, 398, 99 patents, 276 with three or more parties, 276 Diffusion, 193 DigiCash, 124 Digital cash and perfect crime, 123, 24 anonymous money orders, 117, 19 ideal system, 123 introduction, 117 protocols in working products, 124 Digital certified mail, 103, 4 Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) DES chip, 231 SPX protocols, 55, 56 Digital Signature Algorithm (DSA), 304, 14 criticisms of, 305, 7 dangers of common modulus, 313 description of, 307, 8 digital signatures, 33 ElGamal encryption with, 310, 11 introduction, 12 patents, 313, 14 precomputations, 309 prime generation, 309, 10 reaction to announcement, 305, 7 RSA encryption with, 311 security, 311, 13 speed, 306 subliminal channels, 313, 390, 92 Digital signatures algorithms and terminology, 35, 36 applications of, 37 choosing algorithms, 320 Digital Signature Algorithm (DSA), 304, 14 ElGamal, 300, 2 with encryption, 37, 39 ESIGN, 314, 15 fail-stop, 69, 70 Feige-Fiat-Shamir algorithm, 291, 96 group signatures, 70, 71 Guillou-Quisquater signature scheme, 297, 99 identification schemes, 291, 96 introduction, 31 key exchange with, 45, 46 legal issues, 454 multiple signatures, 36, 296, 298, 99 Okamoto 92, 316, 17 Ong-Schnorr-Shamir, 299, 300 RSA standards, 288 Schnorr, 302, 4 signing documents and timestamps, 34 signing documents with symmetric cryptosystems and arbitrator, 31, 33 signing documents with public-key cryptography and one-way hash functions, 34, 35, 39 subliminal-free signatures, 68 undeniable, 7, 68, 69, 392, 95 Digital Signature Standard (DSS), 288, 304 Dining Cryptographers problem, 124 Discrete logarithm problem, 153, 317, 395. See also Logarithms,discrete Disk file erasure, 183 Distributed convertible undeniable signatures, 395 Distributed key management, 153 Distributed protocols, 64, 65 DoD standard for disk overwrites, 183 Double encryption, 165, 66 DSA. See Digital Signature Algorithm (DSA) Durstenfeld, R., 374 Dutchy of Mantua, 10 E-boxes, 227 Eavesdroppers, 4, 22, 24 Ehrsham, W. F., 413 8-bit CFB, 160 Elections, secure characteristics of, 105, 109 cheating, 113, 14 other voting schemes, 113, 14 simplistic voting protocols, 105, 6 voting with blind signatures, 106, 7 voting with single central facility 109, 10 voting with two central facilities, 107, 8 voting without Central Tabulating Facility (CTF), 110, 13 Electronic Codebook mode (ECB), 154, 55, 231 Electronic Frontier foundation (EEF), 438, 446 ElGamal algorithm, 300, 2, 310, 11 encrypted key exchange (EKE), 379 subliminal channel, 388, 89 ElGamal, Taher, 276, 290 Elliptic curve cryptosystems, 317, 318 Elliptic Curve Method (ECM), 211 Enciphering, 8 Encoding, 8 Encrypt, decrypt-encrypt (EDE) mode, 166, 67 Encrypted key exchange (EKE) applications, 380, 81 basic protocol, 378, 79 Diffie-Hellman, 379, 80 ElGamal, 379 RSA implementation, 379 strengthening, 380 Encryption algorithms, 2, 3 communications networks, 178, 80 computing with encrypted data, 71, 395 data for storage, 180, 81 DES speed, 231 digital signatures and, 37, 38 ElGamal algorithm, 301, 2 ElGamal with DSA, 310, 11 encrypting with private key, 35 hardware vs. software, 181, 83 introduction, 1, 2 knapsack algorithm, 279 multiple, 165, 69 one-time pads, 13, 16 probabilistic, 406, 8 public-key, 29 RSA with DSA, 311 software and hardware implementations, 148 Encryption keys, 4, 151 End-to-end encryption, 179, 80 Enemy, 4 Enigma rotor device, 11, 364, 365 Entropy and uncertainty, 189, 90 Envelopes, 96 Equipment, DES, 222 Erritt, Michael, 50 Error detection, 148 Error propagation block ciphers vs. stream ciphers, 177 cipher block chaining (CBC) mode, 159, 60 cipher feedback (CFB) mode, 160, 61 output feedback (OFB) mode, 162 Error propagation in cypher block chaining (CBC) mode, 159, 60 Errors, self-recovering, 160 Errors, synchronization. See Error propagation ESIGN algorithm, 314, 15, 389, 90 patents, 315 security, 315 ESPCI, 269 Euclid's algorithm, 200, 1, 202, 3 Euler generalization of Fermat's little theorem, 203 Euler phi function, 203 Euler totient function, 203, 4 EUROCRYPT conference, 91 Example implementations Capstone, 437, 38 Clipper, 437, 38 IBM secret key management protocol, 413, 14 ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network Terminal, 415, 17 ISO authentication framework, 425, 28 KERBEROS, 417, 25 KryptoKnight, 425 Message Security Protocol (MSP), 436 MITRENET, 414, 15 Pretty Good Privacy (PGP), 153, 436, 37 Privacy-enhanced mail (PEM), 428, 36 Exchanging keys and messages. See Key exchange Expansion permutation, 227 Exponential algorithms, 194 Exponentiation modulo p, coin flipping using, 396, 97 Export algorithms, 184, 85, 448, 54 EXPTIME-complete problems, 197 Face-to-face contract signing, 99, 100 Factoring, 211, 13 algorithms, 211, 13 modular factoring machines, 212 security of RSA algorithm and, 282, 85 square roots modulo N, 213, 289 Fail-stop digital signatures, 69, 70 Fair coin flips, 74, 78 Fair cryptosystems, 82, 83, 386, 398, 99 Fast Elliptic Encryption (FEE), 318 FEAL-N, 249, 52 Fedeal Standards, 221, 222, 338 Feedback in cipher block chaining (CBC) mode, 157, 159 in cipher feedback (CFB) mode, 160, 61 in output feedback (OFB) mode, 162 Feedforward in cipher block chaining (CBC) mode, 159 Feige, Uriel, 91 Feige-Fiat-Shamir, 291, 96, 392 enhancements, 294 Fiat-Shamir signature scheme, 294, 95 identifications scheme, 292, 94 improved Fiat-Shamir signature scheme, 295, 96 N-party identification, 296 Ohta-Okamoto identification scheme, 296 patents, 296 simplified identification scheme, 291, 92 single accreditation, 292 Feldman, 238 Feldmeier, David, 48 Fermat's little theorem, 203 Fiat, Amos, 91 Fiat, Shamir signature scheme, 294, 95, 392 File erasure, 183 Financial Institution Retail Security Working Group, 221 Fingerprint, 28 Finite field, 209 discrete logarithms in, 216, 18 FIPS PUBs, 221, 231 Fixed-bit index (FBI), 399 Follett, Robert, 306 Foundations of Computer Science (FOCS) conference, 91 Frankel, Yair, 386 French banking community and RSA, 288 French Direction Generale de la Securite Exterieure (DGSE), 237 Fujioka, A., 318 Functions, one-way, 27, 29 Gait, 162 Galois, Evariste, 210 Galois field, computing in, 209, 10, 276 Garey, Michael, 197 Gaussian integer scheme, 217 Geffe generator, 358, 59 General Services Administration (GSA), 221 Generalized DES (GDES), 243 Generating good keys, 144, 45 Generators, 208, 9, 309, 10 GF(2^n), computing in, 210, 11, 276 Goldreich, Oded, 100 Goldwasser, Shafi, 80, 406 Gollman, D., 363 Gollmann cascade, 360 Goodman-McAuley cryptosystem, 280 Goppa codes, 316 Graham-Shamir knapsack, 280 Graph theory graph isomorphism, 88, 89 Hamiltonian cycles, 87, 88 Greatest common divisor, 200, 1 Greene, J. W., 385 Group signatures, 70, 71 with trusted arbitrator, 70, 71 Groups DES, 234, 36 double encryption, 166 IDEA, 266 Guam, P., 317 Gude, M., 370 Guillou, Louis, 85 Guillou-Quisquater algorithm, 297, 99 identification scheme, 297, 98 signature scheme, 298 Gutmann, Peter, 271 Gutowitz, Howard, 268 Haber, Stuart, 62, 306, 309 Hamiltonian cycles, 87, 88 Hard problems, 196, 319 Hardware DES implementation, 231 RSA in, 285 Hardware encryption, 148, 181, 82, 263, 64 Harn, Lein, 393 Hastad, J., 287 HAVAL one-way hash function, 336, 37 Hellman, Martin, 29, 33, 131, 166, 167, 217, 236, 273, 277, 385 Herlestam, T., 280 Hill cipher, 10 Hill, I. D., 349 Historic terms, 8 Homophonic substitution cypher, 8, 10 Hybrid cryptographic systems, 177 Hybrid cryptosystems, 31 I/p generator, 363, 64 IBM, 220, 232, 236, 273, 306 IBM secret key management protocol, 413, 14 IDEA, 260, 66, 436 Ideal secrecy, 192 Identification schemes Feige-Fiat-Shamir, 291, 96 Guillou-Quisquater, 297, 98 Imai, H., 270 Increment, 347 Information theory, 189, 93 approach to stream ciphers, 366, 67 confusion and diffusion, 193 entropy and uncertainty, 189, 90 in practice, 193 rate of language, 190, 91 security of cryptosystems, 191 unicity distance, 192 Information, amount in messages, 189 Ingemarsson, I., 367 Initial chaining value, 159 Initialization Vector cipher block chaining (CBC) mode, 158 cipher feedback mode, 161 salt, 48 Initializing variable, 158 Insertion attack, stream ciphers, 174 Interactive proofs, 91 Interactive protocols, 86 Interceptors, 4 Interchange Key (IK), 433 Interlock protocol, 44, 45, 49, 51 Interlopers, 4 Internal feedback, 162 International Association of Cryptographic Research (IACR), 445 International Data Encryption Algorithm (IDEA). See IDEA International Organization of Standards, 288 Internet, 428, 430. See also Privacy-enhanced mail (PEM) Internet Policy Registration Authority (IPRA), 430 Intractable problems, 195, 96 Introducers, 153 Intruders, 4 Inverses in modular arithmetic, 201, 3 IPES (Improved Proposed Encryption Standard), 260 Irreducible polynomials, 210 ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network Terminal, 415, 17 ISO authentication framework, 425, 28 certificates, 426 protocols, 426, 28 Itoh, A., 318 Jacobi symbol, 207, 8, 290 Johnson, David, 197 Kahn, David, 6, 11 Kaliski, Burt, 259 Karn method, 270 Karn, Philip, 48, 270 Kerberos protocol, 55 credentials, 419, 20 future, 424, 25 getting initial ticket, 421 getting server tickets, 421, 22 Kerberos model, 417, 18 licenses, 425 methodology, 419 requesting services, 422, 23 security, 424 software modules, 418, 19 version 4, 423, 24 Key Certification Authority, 30 Key distribution anonymous, 80, 81 in large networks, 147 in MITRENET network, 414, 15 Key Distribution Center (KDC), 30 session keys from, 42 Key escrow system, 437, 38 Key exchange authentication protocols, 51, 56 COMSET (COMmunications SETup), 377, 78 with digital signature, 45, 46 encrypted. See Encrypted key exchange (EKE) interlock protocol, 44, 45, 49, 51 key and message broadcast, 46, 47, 57 key and message transmission, 46 man-in-the-middle attack, 43, 44, 49, 50 with public-key cryptography, 43 Shamir's three-pass protocol, 376, 77 with symmetric cryptography, 42, 43 Key length biotechnology, 138, 39 brute-force attacks, 130, 35 Chinese Lottery, 137, 38 DES, 236, 37 future security, 139 security of symmetric cryptosystem and, 129 software crackers, 235, 36 time and cost estimates for brute-force attack, 130, 35, 195 viruses, 137 Key management distributed, 153 generating keys, 140, 41, 144, 45 good keys, 144, 45 IBM secret-key management protocol, 413, 14 poor key choices, 142, 44 reduced keyspaces, 141, 42 software encryption and, 182, 83 Key notarization, 414 Key transformation, DES, 226 Key-encryption key, 146, 151 Keyboard latency for real random sequence generators, 370 Keys and security, 2, 4 ANSI X9.17 standard, 145 backup, 149 complement keys, 234 compromised, 150 Data Exchange Key (DEK), 433 DES with independent subkeys, 241 destroying, 152 determining length by counting coincidences, 13 error detection, 148 generating good, 144, 45 generating random, 144. See also random numbers generating using coin flipping, 78 generating, 140, 45 Interchange Key (IK), 433 introduction, 2, 3 key crunching, 144 key-encryption key, 146 keystream generator and, 170, 71 lifetime of, 150, 51 master and master terminal, 413 master key, 146 pass phrase and, 145 poor choices for, 142, 44 reduced keyspaces, 141, 42 ROM, 148, 49 semi-weak keys, 233 session, 42 software and hardware implementations, 148 storing, 148, 49 symmetric cryptosystems, 26, 27 transferring, 145, 47 transmitting messages and, 46 verifying, 147, 48 weak DES, 232, 34 Keyspace, 2 Keystream generator, 169, 72 Khufu and Khafre, 257, 59 Kilian, Joe, 74, 97 Klein, Daniel, 48 Knapsack algorithm, 277, 81 creating public key from private, 278, 79 decryption, 279, 80 encryption, 279 one-way hash functions, 337 patents, 281 practical implementations, 280 security, 280 superincreasing, 278 variants, 280, 81 Known-plaintext attack, 5 Knudson, Lars, 255, 256 Knuth, D., 201, 203, 211 Koblitz, Neal, 275, 317 Konheim, Alan, 237 Korzhik, V. I., 316 Kranakis, Evengelos, 200 KryptoKnight, 425 Kurosawa, T., 318 L'Ecuyer, Pierre, 349 LaGrange interpolating polynomial scheme, 383, 84 Lai, Xuejia, 260, 264, 266, 340, 341, 343, 345 LaMacchia, Brian, 307, 381 Language, rate and redundancy of, 190, 91 Large numbers used in cryptography, 15, 16 Lawsuits and patents, 447, 48 Legendre symbol, 206 Lehmann prime number algorithm, 215 Length, maximal, of LSFRs, 351 Lenstra, Arjen, 212, 306, 309 Lexar Corporation, 237 Lidl, Rudolph, 318 Lifetime of keys, 150, 51 Linear algorithms, 194 linear congruential generators, 347, 51 Linear cryptanalysis, 241 Linear feedback shift registers (LFSR), 351, 55 Linear sieve, 217 Link-by-link encryption, 178, 79, 180 Linking protocols, 63, 64 Logarithms, discrete in finite field, 216, 18 problem, 153, 317, 395 zero knowledge proofs, 401, 3 LOKI, 255, 57 LOKI double-block hash function, 342 LOKI single-block hash function, 339 Low exponent attack against RSA, 287, 88 LSFR. See Linear feedback shift registers Lu-Lee cryptosystem, 280 Luby-Rackoff method, 270, 71 LUCIFER, 220, 236, 244, 45 MAC (Message Authentication Code), 345 Macintosh system 7, 148 Madryga, 245, 47 Mail systems digital certified mail, 103, 4 MITRENET, 414, 15 privacy-enhanced mail (PEM), 428, 36 Man-in-the-middle attack, 43, 44, 49, 50 Manasse, 212 Manipulation detection code (MDC), 28 MASKs, 253 Massey, James, 260, 340, 343, 364, 367, 439 Master key, 146, 413 Master terminal key, 413 Mathematical theory. See Information theory Matsui, Mitsuru, 241, 252 Matsumoto-Imai algorithm, 318 Matyas, S. M., 413 Maximal length generator, 347 Mauborgne, Major Joseph, 13 Maurer, Ueli, 367 McCurley, Kevin, 275, 304 McEliece algorithm, 316 MD2, 333 MD4, 329 MD5, 329, 33 chaining variables, 330 description of, 329, 32 security, 332, 33 MDC-4, 343, 44 Mechanical encryption devices, 11 Meet-in-the-middle attack, 166 Memory management, 152, 183 Mental poker anonymous key distribution, 80, 81 attacks against poker protocols, 80 introduction, 78 with three players, 78, 79 Merchants, cheating, 119, 22 Merkle, Ralph, 166, 167, 257, 59, 273, 277, 324, 329, 344 Merkle-Hellman knapsack algorithm, 277, 81 Merritt, Michael, 110, 378, 380, 424 Message Authentication code (MAC), 345 Message Digest, 28, 329 Message digest cipher (MDC), 271, 72 Message Integrity Check (MIC), 429 Message security protocol (MSP), 436 Messages broadcasting keys and, 46, 47, 57 information theory, 189, 93 introduction, 1, 2 Metal insulator semiconductor capacitor (MISC), 370 Meyer, C. H. W., 232, 338, 413 Meyer, Joseph A., 453 Meyer-Schilling hash function, 344 Micali, Silvio, 80, 82, 100, 295, 386, 398, 406, 407 Miller, V. S., 275, 317 Minimum, disclosure proof, 84 MITRENET, 414, 15 Miyaguchi hash function, 339, 40 Miyaguchi, Shoji, 249 MMB (Modular Multiplication-based Block cipher), 266, 68 (m,n)-threshold scheme, 59, 383 Modular arithmetic, 198, 200 greatest common divisor, 200, 1 inverses in modular arithmetic, 201, 3 prime numbers, 200 Modular reduction, 198 Moore, J. H., 288 Motorola, 306, 7 Muller, Winfried, 318 Multiple DES, 241 Multiple encryption, 165, 69 double encryption, 165, 66 doubling block length via, 167, 69 encrypt-decrypt-encrypt (EDE) mode, 166, 67 meet-in-the-middle attack, 166 multiple algorithms for, 168 triple encryption, 166, 67 with multiple algorithms, 168 Multiple keys, public-key cryptography, 56, 58, 381 Multiple signatures, 36, 296, 298, 99 Multiplexer generator, 359 Multiplier, 347 Multispeed inner-product generator, 363 Mutual authentication, 49, 51 N-Hash one-way hash function, 326, 28 N-party identification, 296 National Bureau of Standards (NBS), 219, 21 National Computer Security Center (NCSC), 440, 41 National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), 218, 304,441, 44 National Security Agency, 130, 184, 85, 439, 40 and DES, 219, 23, 232, 236, 37, 273, 74 and DSS, 312, 13 Skipjack, 269, 70, 437 Needham, 52, 177 Needham and Schroeder protocol, 52, 54 Networks factoring algorithms on, 212, 13 IBM secret-key management protocol, 413, 14 key distribution in, 147 Neumann, John von, 39 NewDES, 247, 49 New South Wales, University of, 256 Niederreiter cryptosystem, 280 Niederreiter, Harald, 318 Niemi cryptosystem, 280 Nippon Telephone and Telegraph, 326 Nobauer, Wilfried, 318 Noninteractive zero-knowledge proofs, 90, 91 NP problems, 196, 98 NP-complete problems, 197, 98, 277 NTT Japan, 249, 252, 314 Number Field Sieve, (NFS), 211, 217 Number Theory, 198, 211 Blum integers, 208 Chinese remainder theorem, 204, 5 Euler totient function, 203, 4 Fermat's little theorem, 203 Galois field, computing in, 209, 10, 276 generators, 208, 9 GF(2^n), computing in, 210, 11, 276 Jacobi symbol, 207, 8, 290 Legendre symbol, 206 modular arithmetic, 198, 200 Primative polynomials mod 2, 353, 56 quadratic residues and nonresidues, 206 solving for coefficients, 203 Numbers, relatively prime, 200 Numbers and nonuniform distributions, 372, 74 Nurmi, Hannu, 109 Oblivious transfer algorithm, 404 fair cryptosystems, 82, 83 introduction, 97, 98 Octway-Rees protocol, 54 Odlyzko, Andrew, 307, 381 Office of Technology Assessment, 223 Ohta, Kazuo, 123, 319 Ohta-Okamoto identification scheme, 296 Okamoto 92 algorithm, 316, 17 Okamoto, Tatsuaki, 123, 314, 319 Omaa, Arto, 109 One-key algorithms, 3 One-time pads overview, 13, 16 security of, 7 One-time tape, 366 One-way functions abreast Davies-Meyer, 343 bit commitment using 73 coin flipping using, 75, 76 Davies-Meyer, 338, 39, 340, 41 equal block and key sizes, 340 LOKI double-block, 342 LOKI single-block, 339 MDC-4, 343, 44 Miyaguchi, 339, 40 Preneel-Bosselaers-Govaerts-Vandewalle, 341 prime numbers and , 213 public-key cryptography, 27, 28 Quisquater-Girault, 341, 42 tandem Davies-Meyer, 342, 43 trap-door, 28 using block Algorithms as one-way hash functions, 338, 44 One-way hash functions, 28, 29, 270, 72 background, 321, 24 birthday attack, 322 choosing best, 345 design overview, 323, 24 diffusing randomness, 372 HAVAL, 336, 37 Karn, 270 key-dependent, 345, 46 length of, 323 Luby-Rackoff, 270, 71 MAC, 345 MD2, 333 MD4, 329 MD5, 329, 33 Message Digest, 329 message digest cipher (MDC), 271, 72 N-Hash, 326, 28 RIPE-MD, 336 Secure Hash Algorithm (SHA), 308, 333, 36 Snefru, 324, 25 using public-key algorithms, 344 using symmetric block algorithms, 338, 44 Ong-Schnorr-Shamir algorithm, 299, 300, 387, 88 Open Computing Security Group, 425 Opponents, 4 Orange Book, 440 Outerbridge, Richard, 167 Output feedback (OFB) mode, 162 DES, 231 error propagation, 162 security problems, 162 stream ciphers, 172, 73 Output feedback with a non-linear function (OFBNLF), 164 P problems, 196 Padding, 158, 59 triple encryption with, 167 Painvin, Georges, 10 Parallel zero-knowledge proofs, 89 Pass phrase, 145 Passive attacks, 25 Passive cheaters, 25 Passwords, authentication, 47, 51 Patents, 447, 48 CA-1.1, 268, 69 Diffie-Hellman, 276 Digital Signature Algorithm (DSA), 313, 14 ElGamal, 302 ESIGN, 315 FEAL, 252 Fiat-Shamir signature scheme, 296 IDEA, 266 knapsacks, 281 LOKI, 256 Lucifer, 245 Pohlig-Hellman algorithm, 289 REDOC, 254, 55 RSA algorithm, 288 Schnorr algorithm, 304 Pederson, Torben, 395 PEM public-key protocol, 153 Perfect secrecy, 191 Period of cypher, 10 Periodic keystream generators, 171, 72 Permutations DES, 227, 30 generating random, 374, 75 Permuted choice, 227 PES (Proposed Encryption Standard), 260 Pfitzmann, Brigit, 69 Pfleeger, Charles, 80 Pieprzyk, Josef, 336 Pieprzyk cryptosystem, 280 PINs, 221, 381 Plaintext introduction, 1, 2 pairs, characteristics of, 238 Plaintext block chaining (PCB) mode, 164 Plaintext feedback (PFB) mode, 164 Playfair cipher, 10 Pless generator, 359 Pohlig, S. C., 217 Pohlig-Hellman algorithm, 289 Poker. See Mental poker Policy Certification Authorities (PCAs), 430 Pollard, J. M., 300 Pollard's Monte Carlo Algorithm, 211 Polyalphabetic substitution cyphers, 9, 10 Polygram substitution cipher, 9, 10 Polynomial time algorithms, 194 Pomerance, Carl, 212 Price, W. L., 414 Preliminary Message Security Protocol (PMSP), 436 Preneel, Bart, 323, 340, 341, 345 Preneel-Bosselaers-Govaerts-Vandewalle hash function, 341 Pretty Good Privacy (PGP), 153, 436, 37 Prevention, secret sharing with, 387 Primative polynomials mod 2, 353, 56 Prime numbers, 200, 213, 16 Lehmann prime number algorithm, 215 Rabin-Miller, 214, 15 Solvay-Strassen, 214 strong primes, 215, 16 Primitives, 208 Principle square root, 208 Privacy-enhanced mail (PEM), 428, 36 certificates, 430 messages, 430, 34 PEM documents, 429 RIPEM, 435, 36 security, 434 TIS-PEM, 434, 35 Private keys compromised, 150 creating public from, knapsack algorithm, 278, 79 fair cryptosystems, 82, 386, 398, 99 introduction, 4 lifetime of, 151 Private keys. See Secret keys Probabilistic encryption, 406, 8 Problems complexity classes, 196, 97 complexity of, 195, 97 discrete logarithm, 317, 395 hard, 196, 319 mathematical classes of, 196, 98 tractable and intractable, 195, 96 undecidable, 196 Proof-of-identity protocols, 49, 301 Proofs broadcast interactive proofs, 91 minimum-disclosure proof, 84 Zero-knowledge, 84, 91 Propagating cipher block chaining (PCBC) mode, 163, 64, 418 Protocols adjudicated, 23, 24 arbitrated, 21, 23 attacks against, 24, 25 basic zero-knowledge, 85, 87 cryptographic, 20 distributed protocols, 64, 65 example company, 21 interactive, 86 interlock, 44, 45, 49, 51 introduction to, 19, 25 ISO authentication framework, 425, 28 Kerberos protocol, 55 linking protocols, 63, 64 Needham and Schroeder protocol, 52, 54 Otway-Rees protocol, 54 proof-of-identity, 49 purpose of, 20, 21 secret-key identification (SKID), 50, 51 self-enforcing, 24 simplistic voting, 105, 6 SPX protocols, 55, 56 steps involved in, 20 Wide-Mouth Frog protocol, 51, 52 Yahalom protocol, 52 Pseudo-random. See also Random numbers key crunching, 144 sequence generation, 15, 39, 41 sequence generators, bit commitment using, 73, 74 unpredictable numbers, 41 Pseudo-random sequence generators. See also Real random sequence generators combining linear congruential generators, 349, 51 linear congruential generators, 347, 51 linear feedback shift registers (LFSR), 351, 55 modified LFSRs, 356 Shamir's pseudo-random number generator, 365 PSPACE-complete problems, 197 Public algorithms, 183, 84 Public-Key algorithms as hash functions, 344 attacks against, 274, 75 Cade, 318 cellular automata, 317 choosing, 320 compared to symmetric, 31 Diffie-Hellman, 275, 77 Digital Signature Algorithm (DSA), 304, 14 ElGamal, 300, 2 elliptic curve cryptosystems, 317, 318 ESIGN, 314, 15 fair, 83, 386, 398, 99 Feige-Fiat-Shamir, 291, 96 Guillou-Quisquater, 297, 99 hard problems, 319 introduction, 3, 4, 273, 74 Knapsack algorithms, 277, 81 Matsumoto-Imai, 318 McEliece, 316 Okamoto, 92, 316, 17 Ong-Schnorr-Shamir, 299, 300 Pohlig-Hellman, 289 Rabin, 289, 91 RSA, 281, 88 Schnorr, 302, 4 security, 274, 75, 319 Yagisawa, 318 Public key cryptography attacks against, 30, 31 coin flipping using, 76, 77 communications using, 29, 31 generating keys for, 144, 45 key exchange, 42, 47 multiple-key, 56, 58 one-way functions and, 27, 28 one-way hash functions, 34, 35, 39 prime numbers and, 213, 16 signing documents, 33, 34 user identification with, 48, 49 Public Key Distribution Center, 414, 15 Public Key Partners (PKP), 276, 288, 289 Public keys, 35, 36. See also Keys; Public-Key algorithms certificates, 153 creating from private, knapsack algorithm, 278, 79 database, 43 introducers and distributed key management, 153 introduction, 4 management, 152, 53 one-way functions and, 27, 28 security, 30 PURPLE, Japanese diplomatic code, 6 Q-code cryptosystems, 8 Quadratic algorithms, 194 Quadratic residues and nonresidues, 206 Quadratic Sieve, 211 Quantum cryptography, 408, 10 Queensland University of Technology, 247 Quisquater, Jean-Jacques, 85 Quisquater-Girault hash function, 341, 42 Rabin algorithm, 289, 91, 435 Rabin, Michael, 86, 404 Rabin-Miller prime number algorithm, 214, 15 Rackoff, C., 270 Rainbow Books, 441 RAND tables, 368, 69 Random noise, 370 Random numbers. See also Pseudo-random crypotographically, 40 generating, 14, 15, 39, 41, 144 keystream generators, 170 Random permutations, generating, 374, 75 Randomized stream ciphers, 367 Rate of language, 190, 91 RC2 and RC4, 259, 60, 364 Real random sequence generators, 368, 72. See also Pseudo-random sequence generators biases and correlations, 371, 72 diffusing randomness, 372 measuring keyboard latency, 370 RAND tables, 368, 69 random noise, 370, 71 using computer clocks, 369, 70 Real, world random numbers, 41 Receipts, resending message as, 37, 38 Receiver, 1 REDOC, 252, 55 Redundancy of language, 190, 91 Regan, Ronald and NSDD, 145, 222 Related-key cryptanalysis, 240, 41 Relatively prime numbers, 200 Relativized cryptography, 192 Research and Development in Advanced Communication Technologies in Europe (RACE), 336, 446 Resend attacks, 39 Residues in modular arithmetic, 198, 203 Restricted algorithms, 2 Ribenboim, Paulo, 200 Richter, Manfield, 370 RIPEM, 435, 36 RIPE-MAC, 345, 446 RIPE-MD one-way hash function, 336 RIPE project, secret-key identification (SKID), 50, 51, 343, 446 Rivest, Ron, 12, 100, 259, 282, 329, 332, 35 Riorden, Mark, 435 Robotron, 237 ROM keys, 148, 49 Rotor machines, 11 Rounds, DES, 224, 237 RSA (Rivest, Shamir, and Adleman) algorithm, 281, 88 attacks against poker protocols, 80 common modulus attack, 287 digital signatures and, 33 encrypted key exchange (EKE), 379 in hardware, 285 introduction, 12 low exponent attack against RSA, 287, 88 multiple public-key cryptography, 381 patents, 288 restrictions on, 288 security, 282, 85 speed of, 285, 86, 306 as standard, 288 zero-knowledge proof of ability to break, 403 RSA Data Security, Inc. (RSADI), 259, 60, 305, 364, 444, 45 RSA generator, 365 Rueppel, Ranier, 345, 357, 358, 363, 364 Salomaa, Arto, 399 Salt, 47, 48 Santean, Lila, 109, 399 S-boxes, 228, 29, 237, 38, 242 Scherbius, Arthur, 11 Schnorr, C. P., 299, 337, 367 Schnorr algorithm, 302, 4 Schroeder, 52, 177 Sci.crypt, 445 Scott, Robert, 247 Seberry, Jennifer, 336 Secrecy, ideal, 192 Secrecy, perfect, 191 Secret broadcasting, 382, 83 Secret-key algorithms, 3 Secret-key identification protocols (SKID), 50, 51 Secret keys compromised, 150 database of, 30, 33 introduction, 4 Secret sharing advanced threshold schemes, 385, 86 all-or-nothing disclosure (ANDOS), 83, 84, 399, 401 Asmuth-Bloom, 385 backup keys, 149 with cheaters, 60, 386, 87 Karnin-Greene-Hellman, 385 LaGrange interpolating polynomial scheme, 383, 84 (m,n)-threshold scheme, 59, 383 with prevention, 387 without revealing shares, 386 schemes for, 59, 61 shadows, 59 simultaneous exchange, 104, 5 threshold scheme, 59 without Trent, 60, 61 vector scheme, 384 Secret splitting, 58, 59 Secure algorithm introduction, 7 Secure Data Network System (SDNS), 436 Secure Hash Algorithm (SHA), 333, 36 description of, 334, 35 and DSS, 308 security, 335, 36 Secure Hash Standard (SHS), 323 Secure multiparty computation protocols, 114, 16, 404, 6 secure circuit evaluation, 116, 17 Security of CA-1.1, 268 cheating, 25 cryptosystems, 7, 191 DES, 232 DSA, 311, 13 ESIGN algorithm, 315 hardware and software encryption, 181, 83 Kerberos, 424 key length and future security, 139, 40 and keys, 2, 4 keystream generators and, 170 knapsack algorithm, 280 MD5, 332, 33 of MMB, 267, 68 multiple encryption, 165, 69 network, 178, 80 PEM, 434 problems with OFB, 162 pseudo-random sequences and, 40, 41 public-key algorithms, 274, 75, 319 restricted algorithms, 2 of REDOC II, 253, 54 of REDOC III, 254 RSA, 282, 85 Secure Hash Algorithm (SHA), 308, 335, 36 Self-decimated generators, 362, 63 Self-enforcing protocols, 24 Semi-weak keys, 233 Sender introduction, 1 unconditional, and recipient untraceability, 125 Sequence, superincreasing, 278 Session keys, 42, 418 Shadows, 59, 383 Shamir, Adi, 12, 60, 91, 234, 237, 238, 240, 43, 244, 252, 254, 255, 259, 260, 277, 280, 282, 295, 299, 324, 325, 326, 383 Shamir's pseudo-random number generator, 365 Shamir's three-pass protocol, 376, 77 Shannon, Claude Elmwood, 189, 193 Shares, secret sharing without revealing, 386 Shift registers, 351 Shifting identities problem, 93 Shimizu, Akihiro, 249 Shmuley, Z., 275 Shroyer, Les, 306 Signatures. See Digital signatures Signing contracts, simultaneous with arbitrators, 99 without arbitrator, (face-to-face), 99, 100 without arbitrator, (not face-to-face), 100, 1 without arbitrator, (using cryptography), 101-3 Signing documents and timestamps, 34, 39 with public-key cryptography, 33, 35 with symmetric cryptosystems and arbitrator, 31, 33 Simmons, Gustavus, 67, 318, 387 Simple substitution cypher, 8 Simultaneous exchange of secrets, 104, 5 Single-key algorithm, 3 Smart card applications, 296, 297, 309 Smith, Peter, 318 Snefru one-way hash function, 324, 25 Software brute-force attacks, 135, 36 DES implementation, 231 encryption, 148, 182, 83 Software Publishers Association (SPA), 260 Solvay-Strassen prime number algorithm, 214 Soviet Union, 237 Space complexity of algorithms, 194 Speed DES, 231 DES compared to RSA, 286, 306 of IDEA, 263, 64 of RSA, 285, 86 SPX protocols, 55, 56 Square roots modulo N, 213, 289 Square roots, coin flipping using, 396 Standards. See Data Encryption Standard (DES), RSA algorithm Stereotyped beginnings and endings, 155 Stern, 349 Store-and-forward network, 46, 47 Storing keys, 148, 49 Stornetta, W. Scott, 62 Straight permutation, 230 Stream algorithms, 3 Stream ciphers, 168, 77, 356, 67 alternating stop-and-go generator, 360, 61 Beth-Piper stop-and-go generators, 359 bilateral stop-and-go generator, 361 Blum-Mitcali generator, 365 BlumBlumShub (BBS) generator, 365, 66, 407 cellular automaton generator, 363 complexity, theoretic approach, 365, 66 crypt(1), 364 Geffe generator, 358, 59 Gollmann cascade, 360 I/p generator, 363, 64 information theory approach, 366, 67 insertion attack, 174 introduction, 3 keystream generators, 169, 72 MAC, 345, 46 multiplexer generator, 359 multispeed inner-product generator, 363 Pless generator, 359 randomized, 367 RC4, 364 RSA generator, 365 self-synchronous, 172, 174, 75 self-decimated generators, 362, 63 Shamir's pseudo-random number generator, 365 summation generator, 364 synchronous, 172 system-theoretic approach, 357, 64 threshold generator, 361, 62 using block ciphers as, 175, 76 vs. block ciphers, 176, 77 Stream ciphers. See also pseudo-random sequence generators Strong algorithms, 7 Strong primes, 215, 16 Subliminal channels applications of, 68 DES, 313 DSA, 390, 92 ElGamal, 388, 89 ESIGN, 389, 90 Ong-Schorr-Shamir, 387, 88 protocols, 66, 68 subliminal-free signatures, 68 Substitution, 8, 10, 193 S-box substitution, DES, 228, 29 Summation generator, 364 Sumoto, T., 270 Superincreasing knapsack, 278 Superincreasing sequence, 278 Superpolynomial algorithms, 194 Swap files, 152, 183 Symmetric algorithms compared to public-key, 31 introduction, 3, 4 Symmetric cryptography bit commitment using, 72 communications using, 26, 27 key exchange with, 42, 43 keys and, 26, 27 security of, 129, 30 signing documents with arbitrator, 31, 33 vs. public-key cryptography, 177, 78 Symposium on the theory of Computing (STOC), 91 Synchronous stream ciphers, 172, 74 counter mode, 172, 173 introduction, 172 output feedback mode, 172, 73 Tandem Davies-Meyer hash function, 342, 43 Tap sequence, 351 TCP/IP networks, 417 TEMPEST, 181 Threshold generators, 361, 62 Threshold scheme, 59, 385 Ticket-Granting Server (TGS), 419 Ticket-Granting Service (TGS), 419 Ticket Granting Ticket (TGT), 421 Tickets, 419 Time complexity of algorithms, 194 Time estimates for brute-force attack, 130, 35, 195 Timestamping arbitrated solution, 62, 63 distributed protocols, 64, 65 document signing and, 34, 39 linking protocols, 63, 64 services, 61, 65 TIS-PEM, 434, 35 Tractable problems, 195 Traffic-flow security, 178 Transferring keys, 145, 47 Transposition ciphers, 10 Trap-door one-way functions, 28 Trial Division, 212 Triple encryption, 166, 67 Trusted Information Systems. See Privacy-Enhanced Mail (PEM) Trusted parties, 21 Tsujii, S., 318 Tuchman, W. L., 166, 232, 413 Turing, Alan, 11, 193, 196 Turing machine, 195 Turkin, A. I., 316 U.S. export rules, 447, 54 U.S. government cryptosystems Clipper and Capstone chips, 181, 269, 436, 437, 38 DES (Data Encryption Standard), 12 Unconditionally secure algorithm, 7 Unconditionally secure multiparty protocols, 125, 26 Undecidable problems, 196 Undeniable digital signatures, 68, 69, 392, 95 Unicity distance, 192 Unicity point, 192 UNIX CRYPT(3), 242 Crypt Breakers Workbench (CBW), 364 encryption operations, 148 generating random values, 369, 70 Kerberos, 417, 25 ROT13, 9, 10 salt, 48 TIS-PEM, 434, 35 Unpredictable to left/right, 366 Untraceability, unconditional sender and recipient and, 125 User identification, with public-key cryptography, 48, 49 Van Oorschot, Paul, 167 Variants, DES, 241, 43 Vector scheme, 384 Verifying keys, 147, 48 Vernam, Gilbert, 13 Vigenere cipher classical cryptography, 10 simple XOR, 12, 13 Viruses, 137 Voting. See Elections, secure Waidner, Michael, 69 Waterloo, University of, 337 Wayner, Peter, 66 Weak DES keys, 232, 34 Weizmann Institute in Israel, 291 Well, coin flipping into, 77 Wichmann, B. A., 349 Wide-Mouth Frog protocols, 51, 52 Wiener, Michael, 167, 287 Windows NT, 148 Wolfram, Steve, 337, 363 Wood, Michael, 252, 254 Woollven, Jack, 345 Work factor, breaking algorithms, 7 World War I ciphers, 10 World War II ciphers, 11 X.509 protocols, 425 XOR algorithm, 12, 13 Xuejia, Lai, 260 Yagisawa algorithm, 318 Yahalom protocol, 52 Yamagishi, Atsuhiro, 252 Yang, Shouboa, 393 Yung, Moti, 69 Yuval, G., 322 Zenith video scrambling, 2 Zero knowledge identification algorithm, 297 Zero-knowledge proofs of identity chess grandmaster problem, 91, 93 introduction, 91, 93 shifting identities problem, 93 Zero-knowledge proofs of knowledge basic protocol, 85, 87 convincing third parties, 89, 90 Cut and choose technique, 85, 86 discrete logarithm, proofs of, 401, 3 Feige-Fiat-Shamir algorithm, 291, 96 generalities, 91 graph isomorphism, 88, 89 Hamiltonian cycle, 87, 88 introduction, 84 minimum-disclosure proofs, 84 noninteractive proofs, 90, 91 parallel proofs, 89 RSA, ability to break, 403 Zheng, Yuliang, 270, 336 Zippel, 280